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Prostate Cancer: Signal Mechanism of Androgen Receptor

Year 2021, Volume: 28 Issue: 1, 187 - 198, 11.03.2021
https://doi.org/10.17343/sdutfd.726163

Abstract

Prostate cancer is the second most common form of cancer in male individuals, resulting in the death of individuals. It is known that cells require androgens in normal prostate and prostate cancer development. Androgens initiate the specialized transcriptional process by stimulating the androgen receptor, a member of the steroid-nuclear receptor superfamily in cells. It is known that prostate cancer develops due to the androgen receptor signal that is impaired for various reasons. In this review, information about general features of prostate cancer, cellular androgens, and molecular structure of androgen receptor is summarized. In addition, the mechanism of signal transduction regulated by direct androgen stimulation of the androgen receptor and alternative signaling mechanisms mediated by growth factors, interleukins or proteins that are members of the kinase family will be summarized and discussed in detail.

References

  • 1. Brooke GN, Parker MG, Bevan CL. Mechanisms of androgen receptor activation in advanced prostate cancer: differential co-activator recruitment and gene expression. Oncogene 2008;27:2941-2959.
  • 2. Sciarra A, Innocenzi M, Ravaziol M, Minisola F, Alfarona A, Cattarino, S. et al. Role o f Neuroendocrine Cells in Prostate Cancer Progression. Urologia 2011;78(2):126-31.
  • 3. Grossmann ME, Huang H, Tindall DJ. Androgen receptor signaling in androgen-refractory prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93(22):1687-97.
  • 4. Galani P. DIAGNOSIS & PROGNOSIS OF PROSTATE CANCER. Journal of Advanced Medical and Dental Sciences Research. 2015;3(5).
  • 5. Dutt SS, Gao AC. Molecular mechanisms of castration-resistant prostate cancer progression. Future Oncol. 2009;5(9):1403–1413.
  • 6. Taylor BS, Schultz N, Hieronymus H, Gopalan A, Xiao Y, Carver BS. et al. Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer. Cancer Cell. 2010;18(1):11-22.
  • 7. Huang Y, Xianhan J, Liang X, Jiang G. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of castration resistant prostate cancer. Oncol Lett. 2018;15(5):6063–6076.
  • 8. Bennett NC, Gardiner RA, Hooper JD, Johnson DW, Gobe GC. Molecular Cell Biology of Androgen Receptor Signalling. J Biochem Cell Biol, 2010;42(6):813-27.
  • 9. Lonergan PE, Tindall DJ. Androgen Receptor Signaling in Prostate Cancer Development and Progression. J. Carcinog, 2011;10:20.
  • 10. Locke JA, Guns ES, Lubik AA., Adomat HH, Hendy SC, Wood CA. et al. Androgen Levels Increase by Intratumoral De novo Steroidogenesis during Progression of Castration- Resistant Prostate Cancer. Cancer Research. 2008;68(15).
  • 11. Gao W, Reiser PJ, Coss CC. Selective androgen receptor modulator treatment improves muscle strength and body composition and prevents bone loss in orchidectomized rats. Endocrinology. 2005;146(11):4887–4897.
  • 12. Hiort O, Holterhus PM, Nitsche EM. Physiology and pathophysiology of androgen action. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;12(1):115–132.
  • 13. Osterberg EC, Bernie AM, Ramasamy R. Risks of testosterone replacement therapy in men. Indian J Urol. 2014;30(1):2–7.
  • 14. Liu L, Kang J, Ding X, Chen D, Zhou Y, Ma H. Dehydroepiandrosterone-Regulated Testosterone Biosynthesis via Activation of the ERK1/2 Signaling Pathway in Primary Rat Leydig Cells. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2015;36(5):1778–1792.
  • 15. Miller KK, Al-Rayyan N, Ivanova MM. DHEA metabolites activate estrogen receptors alpha and beta. Steroids. 2013;78(1):15–25.
  • 16. Tan MH, Li J, Xu HE, Melcher K, Yong EL. Androgen receptor: structure, role in prostate cancer and drug discovery. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2015;36(1):3–23.
  • 17. Rastinejad F, Huang P, Chandra V, Khorasanizadeh S. Understanding nuclear receptor form and function using structural biology. J Mol Endocrinol. 2013;51(3):T1–T21.
  • 18. Gurel I, Livshits G. Phylogeny of vertebrate nuclear receptors--analysis of variance components in protein sequences. Coll Antropol. 2003;27(2):599–610.
  • 19. Thornton JW. Evolution of vertebrate steroid receptors from an ancestral estrogen receptor by ligand exploitation and serial genome expansions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(10):5671–5676.
  • 20. Jiménez-Panizo A, Pérez P, Rojas AM, Fuentes-Prior P, Estébanez-Perpiñá E. Non-canonical dimerization of the androgen receptor and other nuclear receptors: implications for human disease. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2019;26(8):R479–R497.
  • 21. Montgomery JS, Price DK, Figg WD. The androgen receptor gene and its influence on the development and progression of prostate cancer. J Pathol. 2001;195(2):138–146.
  • 22. Platz EA, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Kantoff PW, Giovannucci E. Racial variation in prostate cancer incidence and in hormonal system markers among male health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92(24):2009–2017.
  • 23. Giorgetti E, Lieberman AP. Polyglutamine androgen receptor-mediated neuromuscular disease. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2016;73(21):3991–3999.
  • 24. Sahu B, Pihlajamaa P, Dubois V, Kerkhofs S, Claessens F, Jänne OA. Androgen receptor uses relaxed response element stringency for selective chromatin binding and transcriptional regulation in vivo. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014;42(7):4230–4240.
  • 25. Shaffer PL, Jivan A, Dollins DE, Claessens F, Gewirth DT. Structural basis of androgen receptor binding to selective androgen response elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(14):4758–4763.
  • 26. Rawla P. Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer. World J Oncol. 2019;10(2):63–89.
  • 27. Bolton EC, So AY, Chaivorapol C, Haqq CM, Li H, Yamamoto KR. Cell- and gene-specific regulation of primary target genes by the androgen receptor. Genes Dev. 2007;21(16):2005–2017.
  • 28. Davey RA, Grossmann M. Androgen Receptor Structure, Function and Biology: From Bench to Bedside. Clin Biochem Rev. 2016;37(1):3–15.
  • 29. Kemppainen JA, Langley E, Wong CI, Bobseine K, Kelce WR, Wilson EM. Distinguishing androgen receptor agonists and antagonists: distinct mechanisms of activation by medroxyprogesterone acetate and dihydrotestosterone. Mol Endocrinol. 1999;13(3):440–454.
  • 30. Wang C, Young WJ, Chang C. Androgen effects on the solubility and conformational change of the androgen receptor in baculovirus expression system. Mol Cell Biochem. 1999;195(1-2):19–23.
  • 31. Castoria G, Giovannelli P, Di Donato M, et al. Role of non-genomic androgen signalling in suppressing proliferation of fibroblasts and fibrosarcoma cells. Cell Death Dis. 2014;5(12):e1548.
  • 32. Gong Y, Wang D, Dar JA, et al. Nuclear export signal of androgen receptor (NESAR) regulation of androgen receptor level in human prostate cell lines via ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation. Endocrinology. 2012;153(12):5716–5725.
  • 33. Lee DK, Chang C. Endocrine mechanisms of disease: Expression and degradation of androgen receptor: mechanism and clinical implication. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(9):4043–4054.
  • 34. Askew EB, Bai S, Parris AB, Minges JT, Wilson EM. Androgen receptor regulation by histone methyltransferase Suppressor of variegation 3-9 homolog 2 and Melanoma antigen-A11. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2017;443:42–51.
  • 35. Shiota M, Yokomizo A, Naito S, Fujimoto N. [Alteration of androgen receptor cofactor in prostate cancer]. Nihon rinsho. Japanese journal of clinical medicine. 2011 Jun 1;69 Suppl 5:108-111.
  • 36. Lamont KR, Tindall DJ. Minireview: Alternative activation pathways for the androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Mol Endocrinol. 2011;25(6):897–907.
  • 37. Hobisch A, Eder IE, Putz T, et al. Interleukin-6 regulates prostate-specific protein expression in prostate carcinoma cells by activation of the androgen receptor. Cancer Res. 1998;58(20):4640–4645.
  • 38. Malinowska K, Neuwirt H, Cavarretta IT, et al. Interleukin-6 stimulation of growth of prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo through activation of the androgen receptor. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2009;16(1):155–169.
  • 39. Aaronson DS, Muller M, Neves SR, et al. An androgen-IL-6-Stat3 autocrine loop re-routes EGF signal in prostate cancer cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2007;270(1-2):50–56.
  • 40. Singh RK, Lokeshwar BL. Depletion of intrinsic expression of Interleukin-8 in prostate cancer cells causes cell cycle arrest, spontaneous apoptosis and increases the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. Mol Cancer. 2009;8:57.
  • 41. Di Lorenzo G, Tortora G, D'Armiento FP, et al. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor correlates with disease relapse and progression to androgen-independence in human prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8(11):3438–3444.
  • 42. Liu Y, Karaca M, Zhang Z, Gioeli D, Earp HS, Whang YE. Dasatinib inhibits site-specific tyrosine phosphorylation of androgen receptor by Ack1 and Src kinases. Oncogene. 2010;29(22):3208–3216.
  • 43. Léotoing L, Manin M, Monté D, et al. Crosstalk between androgen receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor-signalling pathways: a molecular switch for epithelial cell differentiation. J Mol Endocrinol. 2007;39(2):151–162.
  • 44. Sirotnak FM, She Y, Lee F, Chen J, Scher HI. Studies with CWR22 xenografts in nude mice suggest that ZD1839 may have a role in the treatment of both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent human prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8(12):3870–3876.
  • 45. Abreu-Martin MT, Chari A, Palladino AA, Craft NA, Sawyers CL. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 1 activates androgen receptor-dependent transcription and apoptosis in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Biol. 1999;19(7):5143–5154.
  • 46. Culig Z, Hobisch A, Cronauer MV, et al. Androgen receptor activation in prostatic tumor cell lines by insulin-like growth factor-I, keratinocyte growth factor, and epidermal growth factor. Cancer Res. 1994;54(20):5474–5478.
  • 47. Heinlein CA, Chang C. Androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Endocr Rev. 2004;25(2):276–308.
  • 48. Wu JD, Haugk K, Woodke L, Nelson P, Coleman I, Plymate SR. Interaction of IGF signaling and the androgen receptor in prostate cancer progression. J Cell Biochem. 2006;99(2):392–401.
  • 49. Guo Z, Dai B, Jiang T, et al. Regulation of androgen receptor activity by tyrosine phosphorylation [published correction appears in Cancer Cell. 2007 Jan;11(1):97]. Cancer Cell. 2006;10(4):309–319.
  • 50. Gioeli D, Mandell JW, Petroni GR, Frierson HF Jr, Weber MJ. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase associated with prostate cancer progression. Cancer Res. 1999;59(2):279–284.
  • 51. Sarkar S. Das SA. Review of Imaging Methods for Prostate Cancer Detection.Biomed Eng Comput Biol. 2016; 7(Suppl 1): 1–15.
  • 52. Ayala G, Thompson T, Yang G, et al. High levels of phosphorylated form of Akt-1 in prostate cancer and non-neoplastic prostate tissues are strong predictors of biochemical recurrence [published correction appears in Clin Cancer Res. 2005 Jul 15;11(14):5330]. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(19):6572–6578.
  • 53. Bertram J, Peacock JW, Fazli L. Loss of PTEN is associated with progression to androgen independence. Prostate. 2006;66(9):895–902.
  • 54. Nazareth LV, Weigel NL. Activation of the human androgen receptor through a protein kinase A signaling pathway. J Biol Chem. 1996;271(33):19900–19907.
  • 55. Ismail HA, Lessard L, Mes-Masson AM, Saad F. Expression of NF-kappaB in prostate cancer lymph node metastases. Prostate. 2004;58(3):308–313.
  • 56. Nadiminty N, Lou W, Sun M. Aberrant activation of the androgen receptor by NF-kappaB2/p52 in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2010;70(8):3309–3319.

Prostat Kanseri: Androjen Reseptörü Sinyal Mekanizması

Year 2021, Volume: 28 Issue: 1, 187 - 198, 11.03.2021
https://doi.org/10.17343/sdutfd.726163

Abstract

Prostat kanseri erkek bireylerde cilt kanserinden sonra en sık rastlanan ve bireylerin yaşamını yitirmesi ile sonuçlanan ikinci kanser türüdür. Normal prostat ve prostat kanseri gelişiminde hücrelerinin androjenlere gerek duyduğu bilinmektedir. Androjenler hücrelerdeki steroid-nüklear reseptör süper ailesi üyesi olan androjen reseptörünü uyararak özelleşmiş transkripsiyonel süreci başlatmaktadır. Çeşitli nedenlerle bozulan androjen reseptörü sinyali nedeniyle prostat kanserinin geliştiği bilinmektedir. Bu derlemede prostat kanserinin genel özellikleri, hücresel androjenler ve androjen reseptörünün moleküler yapısı hakkında bilgiler özetlenmiştir. Ayrıca prostat kanseri hücrelerinin kullandığı iki majör mekanizma; androjen reseptörünün doğrudan androjen uyarımı ile düzenlenen sinyal iletiminin mekanizması ve büyüme faktörleri, interlökinler ya da kinaz ailesinin üyesi olan proteinler aracılı olarak kontrol edilen alternatif sinyal mekanizmaları özetlenerek detayları tartışılmıştır.

References

  • 1. Brooke GN, Parker MG, Bevan CL. Mechanisms of androgen receptor activation in advanced prostate cancer: differential co-activator recruitment and gene expression. Oncogene 2008;27:2941-2959.
  • 2. Sciarra A, Innocenzi M, Ravaziol M, Minisola F, Alfarona A, Cattarino, S. et al. Role o f Neuroendocrine Cells in Prostate Cancer Progression. Urologia 2011;78(2):126-31.
  • 3. Grossmann ME, Huang H, Tindall DJ. Androgen receptor signaling in androgen-refractory prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93(22):1687-97.
  • 4. Galani P. DIAGNOSIS & PROGNOSIS OF PROSTATE CANCER. Journal of Advanced Medical and Dental Sciences Research. 2015;3(5).
  • 5. Dutt SS, Gao AC. Molecular mechanisms of castration-resistant prostate cancer progression. Future Oncol. 2009;5(9):1403–1413.
  • 6. Taylor BS, Schultz N, Hieronymus H, Gopalan A, Xiao Y, Carver BS. et al. Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer. Cancer Cell. 2010;18(1):11-22.
  • 7. Huang Y, Xianhan J, Liang X, Jiang G. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of castration resistant prostate cancer. Oncol Lett. 2018;15(5):6063–6076.
  • 8. Bennett NC, Gardiner RA, Hooper JD, Johnson DW, Gobe GC. Molecular Cell Biology of Androgen Receptor Signalling. J Biochem Cell Biol, 2010;42(6):813-27.
  • 9. Lonergan PE, Tindall DJ. Androgen Receptor Signaling in Prostate Cancer Development and Progression. J. Carcinog, 2011;10:20.
  • 10. Locke JA, Guns ES, Lubik AA., Adomat HH, Hendy SC, Wood CA. et al. Androgen Levels Increase by Intratumoral De novo Steroidogenesis during Progression of Castration- Resistant Prostate Cancer. Cancer Research. 2008;68(15).
  • 11. Gao W, Reiser PJ, Coss CC. Selective androgen receptor modulator treatment improves muscle strength and body composition and prevents bone loss in orchidectomized rats. Endocrinology. 2005;146(11):4887–4897.
  • 12. Hiort O, Holterhus PM, Nitsche EM. Physiology and pathophysiology of androgen action. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;12(1):115–132.
  • 13. Osterberg EC, Bernie AM, Ramasamy R. Risks of testosterone replacement therapy in men. Indian J Urol. 2014;30(1):2–7.
  • 14. Liu L, Kang J, Ding X, Chen D, Zhou Y, Ma H. Dehydroepiandrosterone-Regulated Testosterone Biosynthesis via Activation of the ERK1/2 Signaling Pathway in Primary Rat Leydig Cells. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2015;36(5):1778–1792.
  • 15. Miller KK, Al-Rayyan N, Ivanova MM. DHEA metabolites activate estrogen receptors alpha and beta. Steroids. 2013;78(1):15–25.
  • 16. Tan MH, Li J, Xu HE, Melcher K, Yong EL. Androgen receptor: structure, role in prostate cancer and drug discovery. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2015;36(1):3–23.
  • 17. Rastinejad F, Huang P, Chandra V, Khorasanizadeh S. Understanding nuclear receptor form and function using structural biology. J Mol Endocrinol. 2013;51(3):T1–T21.
  • 18. Gurel I, Livshits G. Phylogeny of vertebrate nuclear receptors--analysis of variance components in protein sequences. Coll Antropol. 2003;27(2):599–610.
  • 19. Thornton JW. Evolution of vertebrate steroid receptors from an ancestral estrogen receptor by ligand exploitation and serial genome expansions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(10):5671–5676.
  • 20. Jiménez-Panizo A, Pérez P, Rojas AM, Fuentes-Prior P, Estébanez-Perpiñá E. Non-canonical dimerization of the androgen receptor and other nuclear receptors: implications for human disease. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2019;26(8):R479–R497.
  • 21. Montgomery JS, Price DK, Figg WD. The androgen receptor gene and its influence on the development and progression of prostate cancer. J Pathol. 2001;195(2):138–146.
  • 22. Platz EA, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Kantoff PW, Giovannucci E. Racial variation in prostate cancer incidence and in hormonal system markers among male health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92(24):2009–2017.
  • 23. Giorgetti E, Lieberman AP. Polyglutamine androgen receptor-mediated neuromuscular disease. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2016;73(21):3991–3999.
  • 24. Sahu B, Pihlajamaa P, Dubois V, Kerkhofs S, Claessens F, Jänne OA. Androgen receptor uses relaxed response element stringency for selective chromatin binding and transcriptional regulation in vivo. Nucleic Acids Res. 2014;42(7):4230–4240.
  • 25. Shaffer PL, Jivan A, Dollins DE, Claessens F, Gewirth DT. Structural basis of androgen receptor binding to selective androgen response elements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(14):4758–4763.
  • 26. Rawla P. Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer. World J Oncol. 2019;10(2):63–89.
  • 27. Bolton EC, So AY, Chaivorapol C, Haqq CM, Li H, Yamamoto KR. Cell- and gene-specific regulation of primary target genes by the androgen receptor. Genes Dev. 2007;21(16):2005–2017.
  • 28. Davey RA, Grossmann M. Androgen Receptor Structure, Function and Biology: From Bench to Bedside. Clin Biochem Rev. 2016;37(1):3–15.
  • 29. Kemppainen JA, Langley E, Wong CI, Bobseine K, Kelce WR, Wilson EM. Distinguishing androgen receptor agonists and antagonists: distinct mechanisms of activation by medroxyprogesterone acetate and dihydrotestosterone. Mol Endocrinol. 1999;13(3):440–454.
  • 30. Wang C, Young WJ, Chang C. Androgen effects on the solubility and conformational change of the androgen receptor in baculovirus expression system. Mol Cell Biochem. 1999;195(1-2):19–23.
  • 31. Castoria G, Giovannelli P, Di Donato M, et al. Role of non-genomic androgen signalling in suppressing proliferation of fibroblasts and fibrosarcoma cells. Cell Death Dis. 2014;5(12):e1548.
  • 32. Gong Y, Wang D, Dar JA, et al. Nuclear export signal of androgen receptor (NESAR) regulation of androgen receptor level in human prostate cell lines via ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation. Endocrinology. 2012;153(12):5716–5725.
  • 33. Lee DK, Chang C. Endocrine mechanisms of disease: Expression and degradation of androgen receptor: mechanism and clinical implication. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(9):4043–4054.
  • 34. Askew EB, Bai S, Parris AB, Minges JT, Wilson EM. Androgen receptor regulation by histone methyltransferase Suppressor of variegation 3-9 homolog 2 and Melanoma antigen-A11. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2017;443:42–51.
  • 35. Shiota M, Yokomizo A, Naito S, Fujimoto N. [Alteration of androgen receptor cofactor in prostate cancer]. Nihon rinsho. Japanese journal of clinical medicine. 2011 Jun 1;69 Suppl 5:108-111.
  • 36. Lamont KR, Tindall DJ. Minireview: Alternative activation pathways for the androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Mol Endocrinol. 2011;25(6):897–907.
  • 37. Hobisch A, Eder IE, Putz T, et al. Interleukin-6 regulates prostate-specific protein expression in prostate carcinoma cells by activation of the androgen receptor. Cancer Res. 1998;58(20):4640–4645.
  • 38. Malinowska K, Neuwirt H, Cavarretta IT, et al. Interleukin-6 stimulation of growth of prostate cancer in vitro and in vivo through activation of the androgen receptor. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2009;16(1):155–169.
  • 39. Aaronson DS, Muller M, Neves SR, et al. An androgen-IL-6-Stat3 autocrine loop re-routes EGF signal in prostate cancer cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2007;270(1-2):50–56.
  • 40. Singh RK, Lokeshwar BL. Depletion of intrinsic expression of Interleukin-8 in prostate cancer cells causes cell cycle arrest, spontaneous apoptosis and increases the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs. Mol Cancer. 2009;8:57.
  • 41. Di Lorenzo G, Tortora G, D'Armiento FP, et al. Expression of epidermal growth factor receptor correlates with disease relapse and progression to androgen-independence in human prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8(11):3438–3444.
  • 42. Liu Y, Karaca M, Zhang Z, Gioeli D, Earp HS, Whang YE. Dasatinib inhibits site-specific tyrosine phosphorylation of androgen receptor by Ack1 and Src kinases. Oncogene. 2010;29(22):3208–3216.
  • 43. Léotoing L, Manin M, Monté D, et al. Crosstalk between androgen receptor and epidermal growth factor receptor-signalling pathways: a molecular switch for epithelial cell differentiation. J Mol Endocrinol. 2007;39(2):151–162.
  • 44. Sirotnak FM, She Y, Lee F, Chen J, Scher HI. Studies with CWR22 xenografts in nude mice suggest that ZD1839 may have a role in the treatment of both androgen-dependent and androgen-independent human prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2002;8(12):3870–3876.
  • 45. Abreu-Martin MT, Chari A, Palladino AA, Craft NA, Sawyers CL. Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase 1 activates androgen receptor-dependent transcription and apoptosis in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Biol. 1999;19(7):5143–5154.
  • 46. Culig Z, Hobisch A, Cronauer MV, et al. Androgen receptor activation in prostatic tumor cell lines by insulin-like growth factor-I, keratinocyte growth factor, and epidermal growth factor. Cancer Res. 1994;54(20):5474–5478.
  • 47. Heinlein CA, Chang C. Androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Endocr Rev. 2004;25(2):276–308.
  • 48. Wu JD, Haugk K, Woodke L, Nelson P, Coleman I, Plymate SR. Interaction of IGF signaling and the androgen receptor in prostate cancer progression. J Cell Biochem. 2006;99(2):392–401.
  • 49. Guo Z, Dai B, Jiang T, et al. Regulation of androgen receptor activity by tyrosine phosphorylation [published correction appears in Cancer Cell. 2007 Jan;11(1):97]. Cancer Cell. 2006;10(4):309–319.
  • 50. Gioeli D, Mandell JW, Petroni GR, Frierson HF Jr, Weber MJ. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase associated with prostate cancer progression. Cancer Res. 1999;59(2):279–284.
  • 51. Sarkar S. Das SA. Review of Imaging Methods for Prostate Cancer Detection.Biomed Eng Comput Biol. 2016; 7(Suppl 1): 1–15.
  • 52. Ayala G, Thompson T, Yang G, et al. High levels of phosphorylated form of Akt-1 in prostate cancer and non-neoplastic prostate tissues are strong predictors of biochemical recurrence [published correction appears in Clin Cancer Res. 2005 Jul 15;11(14):5330]. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(19):6572–6578.
  • 53. Bertram J, Peacock JW, Fazli L. Loss of PTEN is associated with progression to androgen independence. Prostate. 2006;66(9):895–902.
  • 54. Nazareth LV, Weigel NL. Activation of the human androgen receptor through a protein kinase A signaling pathway. J Biol Chem. 1996;271(33):19900–19907.
  • 55. Ismail HA, Lessard L, Mes-Masson AM, Saad F. Expression of NF-kappaB in prostate cancer lymph node metastases. Prostate. 2004;58(3):308–313.
  • 56. Nadiminty N, Lou W, Sun M. Aberrant activation of the androgen receptor by NF-kappaB2/p52 in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2010;70(8):3309–3319.
There are 56 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Clinical Sciences
Journal Section Reviews
Authors

Yalçın Erzurumlu 0000-0001-6835-4436

Publication Date March 11, 2021
Submission Date April 24, 2020
Acceptance Date September 14, 2020
Published in Issue Year 2021 Volume: 28 Issue: 1

Cite

Vancouver Erzurumlu Y. Prostat Kanseri: Androjen Reseptörü Sinyal Mekanizması. Med J SDU. 2021;28(1):187-98.

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